General Science Question Part - I (21 to 30)

1.       Which of the following vitamins is helpful for coagulation of blood?

(A)   C

(B)   D

(C)   E

2.        For purifying drinking water, alum is used

(A)   For coagulation of mud particles

(B)    To kill bacteria

(C)   To remove salts

(D)   To remove gases

3.       A weather balloon is not fully inflated on the ground because 

(A)   If the balloon is fully inflated , it may not remain stable in a storm

(B)   The air inside the balloon expands as it rises and may burst

(C)   It cannot withstand the outside pressure it fully inflated

(D)   None of these

4.       Vitamin B12 is most useful for combating

(A)   Anaemia

(B)   Goiter

(C)   Night blindness

(D)   Rickets

5.       The volume of which of the following materials decreases when it is heated from 0°c to 5°c?

(A)   Air

(B)   Copper

(C)   Water

(D)   Mercury

6.       On a night when the sky is clear, the temperature may dip considerably; on a cloudy night the temperature will usually dip much less. The reason for this difference is that

(A)   The clear sky allows radiant energy to escape reality from the earth

(B)   On a cloudy night the clouds are warm and therefore retard the cooling

General Science Question Part - I (11 to 20)

1.       Hybridization is

(A)   Downward movement of water through soil

(B)   A process of tilling the land

(C)   Decayed vegetable matter

(D)   Cross-fertilisation between two varieties

2.       Of the following foods , which one is the best source of protein?

(A)   Butter

(B)   Fish

(C)   Lettuce

(D)   Milk

3.       The red blood cells are formed in the

(A)   Heart

(B)   Liver

(C)   Lymph nodes

(D)   Bone marrow

4.       Wet- bulb and dry-bulb thermo-maters are used to determine

(A)   The minimum temperature at a place in any 24- hour period

(B)   Relative humidity

(C)   Air pressure

(D)   The maximum temperature at a place in any 24- hour period

5.       One of the isotopes of iodine has a “half life” of 25 minutes. This information tells us that if we start with a given quantity of the isotopes , 50 minutes later there will remain

(A)   One- fourth of the  original amount

(B)   None

(C)   One-half of the  original amount

(D)   Approximately  the same amount

6.       The most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere is

General Science Question Part - I (1 to 10)

SOLVED QUESTIONS

1.       An eye defect which usually results from an unequal curvature of the  cornea is

(A)   Nearsightedness

(B)   Astigmatism

(C)   Colour blindness

(D)   night blindness

2.       The velocity of sound in air (under normal conditions) is

(A)   30 m/sec

(B)   320 m/sec

(C)   332 m/sec

(D)   3,320 m/sec

3.       A photo- electric cell converts

(A)   Sound energy into electrical energy

(B)   Light energy into electrical energy

(C)   An electrical signal into sound waves

(D)   Electrical energy into light energy

4.       Which of the following sounds can-not be heard by human ear?

(A)   300 vibrations/ sec

(B)   1,000 vibrations/ sec

(C)   10,000 vibrations/sec

(D)   30,000 vibrations /sec

5.       If force is expressed in Newton and the distance in  metre, then the work done is expressed in

(A)   Joule

(B)   Kg wt

(C)   Kg wt m

(D)   Watt

Later Vedic Period: 1000 BC -600 BC (16 Samskaras, Religion, Economy )

16 Samskaras

1.Garbhadhana 

2. Pumsavana 

3. Simantonnayan  

4.Jatakarma 

5. Namakaran 

6. Nishkramana  

7. Annaprashana 

8. Chudakarma 

9. Karnachhedana  

120. Vidyarmbha  

11. Upanayana  

12. Vedarambha 

13. Samavaratana 

14. Vivaha 

15. Vanprastha 

16. Antyesti.

Religion

The earlier divinites Indra and Agni were relegated into the background  while Prajapati (creator of the Universe, later known as Brahma), Vishnu (patron god of Aryans) and Rudra (God of animals , later identified with Shiva/ Mahesha ) rose in Prominence . Now Prajapati became  supreme God.

Pushana, who protected cattle in the early Vedic Period now became the god of Shudras.

Brihadaranyaka Upanishada was first the work to give the doctrine  of transmigration (Punarjanma/ Chakra) and deeds (karma).

The early simple ceremonial of Rigvedic Period gave place to elaborate sacrifices requiring the services of as many as 17 priests. In the later Vedas and Brahamanas sacrifices (Yajnas) came into prominence.

There were two varieties of Sacrifices:

Later Vedic Period: 1000 BC -600 BC Society

Society

As the time passed by Yajnas became elaborate and complicated ceremonial leading to the emergence of learned men known as  Brahmanas. And as the Aryans expanded to the east and south ,groupo of people known as Kshatriyas emerged to conquer territories and administer them.  The remaining Aryans formed a separate class known as Vaishyas, a word derived from Vis meaning  ‘people ’ . The non- Aryan formed the fourth class known as Shudras.

Neverthless, these divisons of society were not rigid. The institution of Gotra 9i.e. the clan appeared in later Vedic  Period.The higher castes could marry with the lower  ones,  but Marriage with shudras was not permitted. The idea of pollution appeared in society.

The earliest reference to the 4 Ashramas (the stages of life ) _ Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha and Sanyasa – is found in the Jabala Upanished. The Ashranma system was formed to attain 4 Purushathas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.)

The status of women declined. According to Aitareya Brahamana a daughter is the sources of misery but a son is the protector of family .According to Maitrayani Samhite there are three evils _ liquor , women and dice.

Later Vedic Period: 1000 BC -600 BC 12 Ratninas (Satapatha Brahamana)

12 Ratninas (Satapatha  Brahamana)

1.	Purohita	the Priest
2.	Mahishi	the Queen
3.	Yuvaraja	Crown Prince
4.	Suta/Sarathi	The Royal herald/ the Charioteer
5.	Senani	The General
6.	Gramani	Head of the village
7.	Kshata	Gateman/Chamberlain
8.	Sangrahitri	Treasurer
9.	Bhagadudha	Collector of taxes
10.	Akshavapa	Courier
11.	Palagala	Friend of King
12.	Govikarta	Head of forest department

The popular control over the affairs of the kingdom was exercised through Sabha and Samiti, as in the Rigvedic period.Vidatha had completely disappeared by now. Even during the later vedic times, kings did not  possess a standing army. Judiciary also grew. The King played a great role in administering criminal law.  The killing of an embryo, homicide ,the murder of a Brahmana, in particular, stealing of gold and drinking sura were regarded as serious crimes. Treason was a capital offence.

Later Vedic Period: 1000 BC -600 BC Polity

Polity

 Large Kingdoms and stately cities made their appearance in the later Vedic Period. In Taittariya Brahmana we notice the theory of the divine  origin of kingship.

The government  machinery became more elaborate than before , as a sequel to the growth of the power of the king . New civil functionaries  , besides the only civil functionary of the Rigvedic Period the purohita came into existence. These were : the Bhagadudha ( Collector of taxes), the Suta/ Sarathi (the Royalherald  or Charioteer ), the Khasttri (Chamberlain), The  Akshavapa (Courier).

Later Vedic Period: 1000 BC -600 BC Geographical Area

Geographical Area

During the later Vedic Period, The Aryan Settlements covered virtually the whole of Northern India (Aryavarta).

The centre of culture now shifted from Saraswati to Ganges (Madhyadesa).

 There was mention of more rivers such as Narmada , Sadanira (modern Gandak) , Chambal etc.

The expansion of  people towards the east is indicated in a legend of Satapatha Brahamana – how Videha  Madhava  migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and came to the land of Videha (modern Tirhut).

Emergence of Janapadas_ Kuru (Combination of Purus and Bharatas), Panchala  (Combination of Turvashas and Krivis), Kashi etc. in Doab region.

Later Vedic literatures mention Vindhya mountain (Southern mountain).

Post Rig Vedic / Early Period Economy and Religion

Religion

During the Rigvedic time the gods  worshipped were generally the personified powers of Nature.  It was believed that divine powers were capable of conferring both and punishments on man. Fire was sacred as it was regarded to be the intermediary  between man and God.

There were nearly 33 gods. Later day tradition classified them into 3 categories of terrestrial  (Prithvisthana), aerial or intermediate (antarikshasthana)  and celestial  (dyusthana) god.

 

(i)                 Terrestrial (Prithvisthaniya):  Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and rivers.

(ii)               Aerial/ Intermediate( Antarikshasthaniya): Indra, Rudra, Vayu – Vata, Parjanya.

(iii)             Celestial  (Dyusthaniya):  Daus, Surya (In 5 forms: Surya, Savitri, Mitra, pushan, Vishnu). Varuna, Aditi, Usha and Asvin.

Indra, Agni and Varuna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic Aryans.

Indra or Purandra (destroyer of fort ): The most important god (250 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); who played the role of warlord and was considered to be the rain god.

Agni : The second most important god (200 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people.

Veruna: Personified  water ; was supposed to uphold ‘Rits’ or the natural order (‘Ritasyagopa’). 

Surya (sun)  was worshiped  in 5 forms : Surya, Savitri,  Mitra, Pushan and Vishnu.

Surya (Sun) : God who used to drive daily across the sky in his chariot driven by seven horses.

Savitri (the god of light ) : The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to her.

Mitra : A solar god.

Pushan : The god of marriage: main function – guarding of roads, herdsmen and straying cattle.

Vishnu: A god which covered earth in three steps  (Upakrama).

Mahajanapada Period (600 BC -325 BC )

Mahajanapada Period (600 BC -325  BC )

16  Mahajanapadas (Modern Area)                                                  Capital

1.	Anga (districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar)	Champa/ Champanagari
2.	Magadha (districts of Patna , Gaya and Nalanda in Bihar )	Girivraj, Rajgriha/ Rajgir (Bimbisara), Patliputra (Udayin), Vaishali (Shishunaga), Patliputra (Kalashok)
3.	Vajji (districts of Muzaffarpur & Vaishali In Bihar)	Videha, Mithila, Vaishali
4.	Malla (districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur and Siddharthnagar in U.P)	Kuishinara and Pawa
5.	Kashi (districts of  Varanasi in U.P)	Varanasi
6.	Kosala (districts of Faizabad , Gonda, Bahraich in U.P.)	North Kosal- Sravasti/ Sahet- Mahet South Kosal –Saket/ Ayodhya)
7.	Vatsa ( districts of Allahabad, Mirzapuretc, In  U.P)	Kausambi
8.	Chedi (Bundelkhand area)	Shaktimati / Sotthivati
9.	Kuru(Haryana and Delhi area)	Indraprastha (modern Delhi)
10.	Panchala (Ruhelkhand, Western U.P.)	North Panchal –Ahichhatra South Panchal – Kampilya
11.	Shurasena (Brajmandal)	Mathura
12.	Matsya (Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan)	Viratnagar
13.	Avanti (Malwa)	North Avanti- Ujjayini South Avanti- Mahishmati
14.	Ashmaka (between the rivers Narmada and Godavari)	Potana/ Patali
15.	Gandhara (western part of Pakistan and Afghanistan)	Taxila (near Rawalpindi, Pakistan ) and Pushkalavati
16.	Kamboja (Hazara district of Pakistan)	Rajapur/ Hataka

Buddhist literature (Anguttara Nikaya, Mahavastu) and Jain literature (Bhagavati Sutta) Present a list of 16 Mahajanapadas with minor variation of names.

Rig Vedic / Early Period Economy

Economy

The  Aryans crossed the nomadic stage. Yet, great importance was attached to herds of cattle.  Various animals were domesticated. 

The vedic people were probably not familiar with cat and camel.  Tiger was not known ,but the wild  animals like lion ,elephant and boar were known to them.

In all probability ,very little of trade was there.

Money and markets  were known but they were not extensively  used.  Cows and gold  ornaments of fixed value were the media  of exchange. Coins were not known.

Complexity in producing goods made its appearance.  Men of various professions like carpenters, smiths, tanners, weavers, potters and grinders of corn  were there.

The art of healing wounds and curing diseases were in existence.  There were experts in surgery.  Along with herbs and drugs charms and spells were regard as equally potential in healing diseases.

Rig Vedic / Early Period Religion

During the Rigvedic time the gods  worshipped were generally the personified powers of Nature.  It was believed that divine powers were capable of conferring both and punishments on man. Fire was sacred as it was regarded to be the intermediary  between man and God.

There were nearly 33 gods. Later day tradition classified them into 3 categories of terrestrial  (Prithvisthana), aerial or intermediate (antarikshasthana)  and celestial  (dyusthana) god.

(i)                 Terrestrial (Prithvisthaniya):  Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and rivers.

(ii)               Aerial/ Intermediate( Antarikshasthaniya): Indra, Rudra, Vayu – Vata, Parjanya.

(iii)             Celestial  (Dyusthaniya):  Daus, Surya (In 5 forms: Surya, Savitri, Mitra, pushan, Vishnu). Varuna, Aditi, Usha and Asvin.

Indra, Agni and Varuna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic Aryans.

Indra or Purandra (destroyer of fort ): The most important god (250 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); who played the role of warlord and was considered to be the rain god.

Agni : The second most important god (200 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people.

Veruna: Personified  water ; was supposed to uphold ‘Rits’ or the natural order (‘Ritasyagopa’). 

Surya (sun)  was worshiped  in 5 forms : Surya, Savitri,  Mitra, Pushan and Vishnu.

Surya (Sun) : God who used to drive daily across the sky in his chariot driven by seven horses.

Savitri (the god of light ) : The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to her.

Mitra : A solar god.

Rig Vedic /Early Period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)

Geographical Area

Rig Veda is the only source of knowledge for this period.

From the names of rivers, mountains (Himvant i.e. Himalaya, Munjavant i.e. Hindukus) and ocean in Rig Veda we have a clear idea of the geographical area in which Rigvedic people lived.

Rig Veda mentions 40 rivers. The Nadisukta hymn of the  Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include the Ganges in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west.

Rigvedic people, who called themselves Aryans ,were confined in the area which came to be known as Sapta Sindhu i.e. land of the seven rives. Sapta Sindhu comprises Sindhu and their five tributaries – Vitasta, Asikani, Vipas , Parushni & Sutuadri and Saraswati.

According to the RIG Veda, the most mentioned river_ Sindhu ,the most pious river _ Saraswati, mention of the Ganges -1 time .mention of Yamuna -3 times.

Literature of Vedic Tradition (600 BC -600 AD)

Literature of Vedic Tradition  (Smriti  i.e. rememberance  literature) comprises  of 6 literary works : 

1. Vedangas/ Sutras 

2. Smritis  Dharmashastras   

3. Mahakavyas   (Epics)  

4. Puranas  

5. Upvedas  

6. Shad- Dharshanas .

There are six  Vedangas :

(i)                  Shiksha (phonetics) :  ‘pratishakhya’  _ the oldest text on phonetics.

(ii)                Kalpa Suyras  (Rituals)  : a. Sharauta Sutras/ Sutras-  deal with the sacrifices, b. Grithya Sutras_ deal with family ceremonies,c. Dharma Sutras_ deal with Varnes, Ashramas etc.

(iii)               Vyakarana   (Grammer ) : ‘Ashtayayi’  ( Panini) the oldest grammar of the word.

(iv)              Nirukta (Etymology ) :  ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on ‘ Nighantu’ ( Kashyha)- a collection of difficult vedic words _ (Nighantu’ the oldest word – collection of the world; ‘Nirukta _ the oldest dictionary of the world).

(v)                Chhanda ( Metrics) : ‘Chhandasutras’ (Panin ) – famous text.

(vi)              Jyotisha (Astronomy): ‘Vedanga Jyotisah ‘ ( Lagadh Muni)- the oldest  jyotisha text.

Literature of Vedic Tradition (600 BC -600 AD)

Literature of Vedic Tradition  (Smriti  i.e. remembrance  literature) comprises  of 6 literary works:

1. Vedangas/ Sutras 

2. Smritis  Dharmashastras   

3. Mahakavyas   (Epics)  

4. Puranas  

5. Upvedas  

6. Shad- Dharshanas .

There are six  Vedangas :

(i)                 Shiksha (phonetics) :  ‘pratishakhya’  _ the oldest text on phonetics.

(ii)               Kalpa Suyras  (Rituals)  : a. Sharauta Sutras/ Sutras-  deal with the sacrifices, b. Grithya Sutras_ deal with family ceremonies,c. Dharma Sutras_ deal with Varnes, Ashramas etc.

(iii)             Vyakarana   (Grammer ) : ‘Ashtayayi’  ( Panini) the oldest grammar of the word.

(iv)              Nirukta (Etymology ) :  ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on ‘ Nighantu’ ( Kashyha)- a collection of difficult vedic words _ (Nighantu’ the oldest word – collection of the world; ‘Nirukta _ the oldest dictionary of the world).

(v)                Chhanda ( Metrics) : ‘Chhandasutras’ (Panin ) – famous text.

(vi)              Jyotisha (Astronomy): ‘Vedanga Jyotisah ‘ ( Lagadh Muni)- the oldest  jyotisha text.

Vedic Literature (1500 BC-600 BC)

It is presumed that the Rig Veda was composed while the Aryans were still  in the Punjab.

Vedic Literature comprises of four literary productions : 1. The Samhitas or Vedas  2. The Brahamans 3. The  Aranyakas 4. The Upanishads.

Vedic Literature had grown up in course of time and was really handed  down from generation to generation by word of mouth.  Hence these are called Shruti  (to hear).

The most  important of Vedic  Literature are Vedas. Vedas are called Apaurasheya i.e. not created by man but God- gifted and Nitya  i.e. existing in all eternity.

There are four Vedas  -Rig Veda,  Sama  veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The first three Vedas are jointly called Vedatrayi  i.e. trio of Vedas.

Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC)

Original Home of the Aryan

The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial point . some scholars believe that  the Aryans  were  native to the soil of India and some other scholars believe that the ARYANS WERE MIGRATED FROM OUTSIDE [Central Asia ( Max Muller)  / Europe /Arctic region (B.G. Tilak)].

According to popular belief, the Aryans are  supposed to have migrated from Central  Asia into the Indian subcontinent in several stages or waves during 2000 BC- 1500 BC.

Boghazkai INSCRIPTION ( Asia Minor ,Turkey), which mentions 4 vedic gods Indra, Varuna, Mitr nd Nasatyas, proves  Central Asian Theory  as their homeland.

The group that came to India first settled in the present Frontier  Province and the Punjab – then called Sapta Sindhu i.e.  region of seven rivers. They lived here for many centuries and gradually pushed into the interior to settle in the valleys of the Ganges and  the Yamuna.

Harappan/ Indus Civilization - Art and Culture

The most commonly found figurine is that of Mother –Goddess (Matridevi or Shakti). There is evidence of prevalence of Yoni (female sex organ ) worship.

The chief male deity  was the ‘ Pasupati Mahadeve’ i.e ./the lord of Animals (Proto- Shiva ) represented in seals as sitting in yogic posture ; he is surrounded by four animals  (elephant , tiger, rhino and buffalo )and two deer appear at his feet. There was the prevalence of Phallic (lingam) worship.

Thus Shiva- Shakti  worship ,the oldest form   of worship in India, appears to have been part of the religious belief of Harappan people (esp. humped bull)

The remains and relics also reveal that  zoolatry  i.e. animal  worship and tree worship (esp. peepal ) were in vogue in those days. 

There is the evidence of pictographic script, found mainly on seals.  The script has not been deciphered so far , but overlap of letters on some of the potsherds from Kalibanga show that writing was boustrophedon or from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines.  It has been referred to as Proto- Dravidian.

Harappan/ Indus Civilization (Main Crops , Animals, Imports and Exports)

Main Crops :  Wheat and Barely;  Evidence of  cultivation  of rice in Lothal and Rangpur  ( Gujarat) only . Other Crops : Dates, mustard , sesamum,  cotton etc. Indus people were the first to produce    cotton in the world.

Animals : Sheep, goat, humped and humpless  bull , buffalo, boar, dog, cat, pig, fowl, dee5r, tortoise , elephant ,camel, rhinoceros, tiger etc.

Lion was not known to Indus people . From Amari,  a single  instance of the Indian rhinoceros has been reported.

There was extensive inland and foreign trade. Foreign trade with Mesopotamia  or Sumeria (Modern Iraq,) Bahrain etc flourished.

Imports	From
Gold	Kolar  (Karnataka) , Afghanistan, Persia, (Iran)
Silver	Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), South India
Copper	Khetri ( Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia
Tin	Afghanistan, Bihar
Lapis Lazuli and Sapphire	Badak- shan (Afghanistan)
Jade	Central Asia
Steatite	Shaher –i-Sokhta (Iran) , Kirther Hills (Pakistan)
Amethyst	Maharasthtra
Agate	Chalcedonies and Saurashtra  and  West India Carnelians.

Exports : Agricultural products , cotton goods , terracotta figurines, pottery ,certain beads (from  Chanhudaro), conch- shell ( from Lothal), ivory products , copper etc.